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REPTILIA: REPTILES
SCIENTIFIC NAME: CROCODYLUS
PALUSTRIS
COMMON NAME: BROAD SNOUTED CROCODILE, MARSH CROCODILE OR
MUGGER
ORDER: CROCODYLIA
FAMILY: CROCODYLIDAE
SUB-FAMILY: CROCODYLINAE
GENUS: CROCODYLUS
Physical Description
The Mugger can grow up to 4m long though the average
length of most adults ranges between 1.8 and 2.4m. They tend to
be more alligator-like in both appearance and lifestyle. They
have shorter and more broadly shaped snouts and distinct ridges
in front of their eyes as well as four, sharply raised scales,
positioned just behind the head by which they are distinguished.
Their backs are armoured with 16-17 transverse and 4-6 longitudinal
series of bony plates, which are embedded in the skin and are
olive in colour with speckles of black. The skin covering their
bellies is whitish yellow in colour. They also have two series
of flattened vertical scales on their tails; these merge and continue
as a single row towards the tip of the tail.
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns
About 16km north of Karachi, is the famous shrine
of the 13th century saint Kamaluddin, better known as Manghopir.
It is at this oasis-like place where hot and cold springs both
spout, that a small population of Marsh Crocodiles exists. They
are assumed to have lived here long before the advent of Islam
in the sub-continent, as there are many crocodile shrines in lower
Sindh where Hindus worshipped this animal. There is a myth behind
the crocodile’s existence, which states that after the saint had
bathed at one of the springs, he shook his hair and the lice that
were in his hair fell to the ground and became the crocodiles.
The number of crocodiles living at Manghopir has
decreased but a large number of pilgrims and visitors still come
to this place to feed them meat, believing that if the crocodiles
eat their offering, their wishes will be fulfilled.
The marsh crocodile tends to be found in shallow
bodies of water (both fresh and brackish) and will avoid water
deeper than 5m that is fast flowing (especially during the rainy
season). It is an adaptable creature and is able to move over
land to find bodies of water if previous ones have dried up. They
have been known to colonize man-made ponds known as ‘tanks’, as
well as lakes, ponds and jheels.
Their diet comprises largely of fish but they also
feed on amphibians, birds and mammals including various monkeys
and squirrels. They have also learnt, over time, to steal fish
from fishermen’s nets. They hunt exclusively in the water and
will come out of the water to drag their prey in so that it drowns.
If the prey is large many crocodiles may tear it to small pieces.
Otherwise the animal will let the carcass sit for some time until
decomposition makes it easier to break the carcass up. Younger
crocodiles will feed on water insects, snails, frogs and any fish
they can catch. Recorded stomach contents of these crocodiles
include leopard, wild dog, hyena, chital, sambar, domestic dog,
goat, calf, duck, wild bird, monkey, barking deer etc. Crocodiles
also have the curious habit of swallowing stones with their food.
This is said to aid in digestion and act as a counterbalance while
floating and diving.
Breeding and Other Patterns/Habits
Most Crocodilians breed once a year, muggers will
however breed twice a year (eight out of ten females will nest
twice a year). Females begin breeding when they are 1.7m long
and around six years old, and males will begin breeding when they
are around 2.6m and about 10 years old. Mating is observed from
mid January to March, resulting in females nesting between the
end of February and early April.
The females dig their nests away from the water, very
frequently in sloping hillsides that are near a river. The usual
number of eggs in a clutch is about 30 but as many as 46 eggs
in a clutch has been observed. It can take up to 65 days for the
eggs to hatch, at which time the hatchlings measure up to 30cm
and are freed by their mother from their subterraneous nest.
This creature, like other Crocodilians, is an excellent
swimmer, using only its powerful tail to propel itself through
the water. On land the animal will rest with its belly touching
the ground but when it walks or runs its belly is off the ground.
Its senses of sight, smell and hearing are well developed and
the animal will remain alert while it basks on land. Near the
salt lakes of Sindh the mugger has been known to occupy burrows
on the sides of hills. These were measured to have a diameter
of 60 to 80cm or more and comprise of a tunnel between 2.5 and
4.5m, at the end of which is a chamber that is wide enough for
the crocodile to turn around and comfortably lay down on.
They are usually silent animals but will hiss loudly,
snap their jaws and lash their tails when threatened. Adults will
occasionally roar 2 or 3 times in succession though grunts comprise
the usual mode of communication between individuals. Hatchlings
will emit a high pitched form of this grunt when in distress.
This call is usually answered by neighbouring adults who may charge
the intruder or predator.
Status
The mugger is under threat mainly because it is
poached to obtain the whitish yellow leather that makes up the
skin on its belly. Its numbers have also decreased due to loss
of habitat and poaching of its eggs.
2000 Red List Status:
Vulnerable
SCIENTIFIC NAME: GAVIALIS
GANGETICUS
COMMON NAME: GHARIAL OR GAVIAL
ORDER: CROCODYLIA
FAMILY: CROCODYLIDAE
SUB-FAMILY: GAVIALINAE
GENUS: GAVIALIS
Physical Description
These are potentially very slender and long crocodilians
and are capable of growing up to lengths of 6.5m (21ft). One specimen,
that was shot in Bihar in January 1924, measured 7.1m and other
reports claim that gharials have measured up to 8m. However, gharials
in the past were much larger (fossils show them measuring up to
17m) than those that exist today.
Gharials have long narrow snouts as well as piercing
teeth, both of which facilitate them to capture and consume fish.
This is the only species of crocodilians in which the sexes can
be visually differentiated. The male gharial has a large bulbous
spot at the end of his long snout whereas in the female this feature
is absent. On each side of the upper jaw are 27 to 29 undifferentiated
teeth, the bottom jaw has 25 to 26 teeth on each side.
Gharials have webbed feet that help them swim,
but it is their powerful tails that act as the main swimming aid,
propelling the animal through the water. Gharials have no lips
and can therefore not keep water out of their mouths when they
are submerged. Hence they have a specialized second palate that
prevents water in their mouths from going into their tracheas,
and allows them to swim without drowning.
Adult gharials are a dark to brownish olive on
top and are white or a pale yellow underside. The young are a
greyish brown. They are marked with darker coloured transverse
bands, five on the body and nine on the tail.
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns:
They are found around the flowing rivers of the
Indus River system during breeding season and otherwise prefer
relatively calm waters as it enables them to breathe with greater
ease. 500 to 1000 individuals have been recorded to inhabit the
25 lakes of the Akaro Wildlife Sanctuary in Sindh. There have
also been reports of successful breeding of gharials at the Haleji
Wildlife Sanctuary and at the Khar Wildlife Breeding Center (at
the edge of the Kirthar National Park).
The narrow-snouted Gharial feeds mainly on fish.
They will clamp the fish in their mouths and raise their heads
above the water to be able to swallow the fish headfirst. They
also feed on birds, a habit noted more often with older gharials.
Their narrow snout affords them greater mobility under water,
but prevents them from dragging larger prey onto the riverbank.
Breeding and Other Patterns/Habits
There seems to be a significant courtship involved
before mating occurs, with the male courting the female but gharials
have never been observed in ‘head slapping’ that is conspicuous
in other species during courtship. However, the animals do clasp
jaws under the water and will also blow bubbles. The eggs are
laid by the female two months after mating has occurred.
The mother will prepare different trial nesting
sites where she will dig nests but the final nest is chosen in
a place which is free from danger of flooding, an occurrence which
could prove fatal for the developing embryos. She will therefore
lay her eggs 3 to 5m away from the water’s edge. As the eggs are
hard and have calcified shells, much like those of birds, great
care is taken by the mother that none of the eggs are broken while
being laid. She will therefore lay the eggs one by one into her
hind foot which she will then use as a hand and place each egg
into the hole. A full clutch is laid in around 30 minutes, after
which she covers the nest up with soil. The female usually stays
close to the nest to protect it from invasion by predators. Gharials
are not aggressive animals but the female may become aggressive
if she spots anyone near her nest, though the level of protection
differs from one individual to another.
Gharials can move at a maximum speed of 18km per
hour but cannot maintain it for long. They will only move this
fast when in pursuit of prey, but can not do so otherwise due
to their bulk. Smaller crocodilians are usually more likely to
travel over long distances of land than their larger relatives.
Gharials and all other members of the Crocodylia
family are cold blooded and therefore, depend on their surrounding
environment for body warmth. Larger animals are more able to regulate
their body temperature than smaller ones (i.e. hatchlings), as
the rate of heat lost is influenced by body size. They therefore
remain close to the water as water shows less extreme variations
in temperature than air does. They bask on riverbanks during the
day and will escape cold nights by sleeping at the bottom of lakes
or rivers.
Status
Gharials are long-lived creatures but their numbers
have been on the decline due to many different factors. The fast
flowing rivers, which they inhabit, are being dammed up for both
irrigation and hydroelectric purposes. This prevents them from
nesting on the adjoining banks. Their eggs are still sought after
for both food and medicinal purposes, and male gharials are hunted
for their snouts that are said to have aphrodisiac qualities.
Individuals that are accidentally caught in fishing nets are either
killed by the fishermen when the nets are hauled in, or drown.
As they feed mainly on predatory fish, their depletion
causes an increase in the numbers of these fish, which, in turn
causes a decrease in the numbers of edible fish. Their numbers
have begun to recover through various schemes that have been developed.
Eggs are taken from the wild and are artificially hatched in captivity.
The hatchlings are then reared to a certain age and are released
into the wild. They are, however, still under threat as the number
of adult males is still precariously small.
2000 Red List Status:
Endangered
SCIENTIFIC NAME: NAJA
NAJA NAJA
COMMON NAME: INDIAN (SPECTACLED) COBRA
ORDER: SQUAMATA
SUB ORDER: SERPENT
FAMILY: ELAPIDAE
GENUS: NAJA
Physical Description
The Indian Cobra is a smooth-scaled, medium sized
snake, with an average length of 1m. It may in rare cases, however,
reach a length of 1.8 -2.2m. It has black eyes, a wide neck and
head. Its colouring varies from black, to dark brown, to yellowish
white. The body is covered with white or yellow pattern resembling
spectacles, which sometimes form ragged bands. The most famous
feature of this species is the hood marking design, showing a
connected pair of rings (Romulus Whitaker; Common Indian Snakes).
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns
Indian Cobras are found in Pakistan, Sri Lanka
and throughout India. They are quite adaptable to a wide range
of surroundings and can be seen in wild forests, cultivated
areas and rice fields.
Adults feed on rodents, lizards, frogs and birds.
They bite quickly, and wait while the venom damages the nervous
system of the prey thus paralyzing and often killing it. Like
all snakes, they swallow the whole prey.
Breeding and Other Patterns
These snakes reproduce by the joining of male and
female gametes. They may lay between 12 to 30 eggs per clutch,
usually in a rat hole, tree hollow or termite mound. The female
guards them throughout the incubation period, which is approximately
60 days long.
When threatened, the Indian Cobra assumes its characteristic
posture. It raises the front one-third of its body and elongates
its long, flexible neck. Besides biting, certain species are also
known to spit their venom through the air, which upon entering
the opponent's eyes causes severe damage.
Status
Although the Indian Cobra is not an endangered
species, it is hunted and killed for its distinctive skin, which
is used in the production of handbags.
2000 Red List Status:
Not present
SCIENTIFIC NAME: NAJA
NAJA OXIANA
OMMON NAME: OXUS COBRA OR CENTRAL ASIAN COBRA
ORDER: SQUAMATA
SUB-ORDER: SERPENT – SNAKE
FAMILY: ELAPIDAE
GENUS: NAJA
Physical Description
It is quite similar in appearance to that of the
Indian or Spectacled Cobra. Both are around the same size as well.
The average length of these snakes is around 1.9m and the longest
snake recorded was 2.4m long. They have broad heads and become
slender towards the tail. The hood appearance varies and the body
colouration is yellow to dark brown and black for both males and
females. Males are generally heavier and shorter than females.
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns
The Oxus Cobra is extremely rare in Pakistan. It
is found in the Northern Areas of Pakistan at elevations of up
to 2,100m. They have also been recorded in NWFP, Balochistan and
in parts of Sindh.
They are diurnal animals and are mostly active
during the early morning and late afternoon hours. They feed on
frogs and other snakes but will also feed on a few rodents and
other vertebrates.
Habits
They are not known to be aggressive snakes and
will rather avoid any confrontations with humans. However if the
cobra feels threatened it will raise itself up into a vertical
position, and will spread its long, thin neck ribs to fan out
its hood.
They have relatively large and well-developed fangs
and venom glands. They have potent venom but, due to their short
fang length, cannot inject their venom easily. They therefore
must bite their victim several times or hang on to it to be able
to ensure that sufficient damage has been done. Snake bite symptoms
take effect after about 8 minutes where the victim experiences
anxiety, the quickening of the pulse followed by it growing weak
and irregular, after which the victim falls into a deep coma.
2000 Red List Status:
Data deficient
SCIENTIFIC NAME: PYTHON
MOLURUS MOLURUS
COMMON NAME: INDIAN PYTHON
ORDER: SQUAMATA
SUB-ORDER: SERPENT – SNAKE
FAMILY: PYTHONIDAE
GENUS: PYTHON
Physical Description
The longest specimen measured was 19ft and 2 inches
long (Cooch-Behar, West Bengal). Specimens have been known to
weigh up to 200lb (90.7kg). It is easily identifiable, as its
sensory pits on the snout shield and first two lip shields distinguish
it from all other snakes. It has 58-73 upper body shields, 245-270
belly shields and 60 to 72 pairs of tail shields.
The Indian Python is a massively built snake and
its circumference in relation to its length exceeds all other
snakes except that of other pythons. It is round and thickest
at the middle and tapers towards both the head and tip of the
tail. Its scales are smooth in texture and, if the snake is in
good condition, glossy in appearance. The head is flattened with
a long snout. It has large nostrils that are situated high on
the snout and therefore point upwards. It has small eyes with
vertical pupils and an iris that is speckled with gold. The head
leads on to a distinct neck.
Its base colour is greyish, whitish or yellowish
in adults and is often a pinkish colour in younger specimens.
Dark streaks run from the eye to the nostril in the young and
may or may not be present in adults. There is also a dark, conspicuous
slanting band that runs from the eye to the end of the mouth and
its lower lip is often spotted. On the back of the head and nape
is a lance-shaped mark with a pale center that fades towards the
end. Along the length of the rest of its back are a series of
large and rough, box-like patches. They are paler coloured in
the center, usually the same as the background body colour, and
are outlined in a blackish colour. Two smaller rows of markings
line either side of the mid-row. The belly is a dirty white or
yellowish colour. Freshly molted snakes appear iridescent when
viewed in a certain kind of light, giving bluish or amethystine
hues.
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns
This snake is normally a jungle dweller, but occurs
in open forests with rocky outcrops as well. In the absence of
forests it is found in rivers and lakes. In Sindh it has been
reported to exist around the Indus Delta, in the Thatta and Tharparkar
Districts, and at Haleji Lake.
It feeds on reptiles and birds but prefers mammals.
The recorded stomach contents of this snake include frogs, toads,
monitor lizards, wild ducks, peafowl, poultry, rats, hares, porcupines,
languor, jackal, mouse deer, hog deer and leopard. It lies in
lakes and waterlogged areas and has little difficulty in capturing
prey that come to drink water. The Python will advance on its
prey with a quivering tail and will strike with its mouth wide
open. It throws one or two coils around its prey and once the
animal has suffocated it will begin to swallow it headfirst. The
snake will widen its windpipe an inch or two while swallowing
to assist in its breathing. Snakes are reluctant to move after
heavy meals. The time period between meals depends on the snake’s
condition, the time of year and the size of the prey. Records
of these reptiles in captivity state that they digest small creatures
like rats and crows in about 8 days. However, a goat during the
summer may take up to 3 weeks. Healthy snakes digest all but the
hard structures, like the horns, teeth, feathers, beaks, claws
and scales.
Breeding and Other Patterns/Habits
Mating occurs during the winter months i.e. between
December and February. The average number of eggs in a clutch
can range from 8 to 100 (107 being the largest recorded number).
They are laid 3 to 4 months after mating usually in the pre summer
and summer months of March, April, May and June. The eggs measure
around 12x6cm and are soft, white and domed at both ends. The
female incubates her eggs by coiling around them. After hatching,
however, the mother will take no further interest in her brood.
This happens after about 58 days of having been laid. Hatchlings
from one brood measured 73cm in length.
The young grow rapidly during their first year.
The Python begins breeding when it reaches the length of about
11ft at which time it is usually 5 years old. They are long-lived
animals, specimens in captivity having lived up to over 22 years
of age. Sloughing occurs 5 to 6 times a year except when the animal
is hibernating.
They are lethargic and slow moving animals, and
move in the same, straight manner as other pythons. They climb
trees well when in search of prey and often hide in the branches
of trees. They are also at home in water and can swim strongly,
without surfacing for many minutes when necessary. They will,
however, usually remain on the banks of water bodies, partially
or completely submerged with the exception of the tip of their
snouts. They are diurnal as well as nocturnal depending on the
amount of disturbance by humans.
Status
Hunting for commercial use of their skin has caused
a decrease in the number of these snakes. Factors such as loss
of habitat, animosity and killing for medicinal purposes have
also contributed to the decline of the species over the past few
decades.
2000 Red List Status:
Low risk / near threatened
SCIENTIFIC NAME: CHELONIA
MYDAS
COMMON NAME: GREEN TURTLE
ORDER: TESTUDINES
SUB-ORDER: CRYPTODIRA
FAMILY: CHELONIIDAE
GENUS: CHELONIA
Physical Description
Adults have a shell length of over a meter, with
the longest shell length recorded being 139.79cm. These turtles
can weigh up to 155kg and are smaller than the Loggerhead and
Leatherback Turtles but are larger than the Olive Ridley Turtle.
The upper shell (carapace) has four central (costal)
shields and 25 peripheral (marginal) shields, none of which overlap.
Normally the limbs have one claw each and a single pair of prefrontal
shields on the turtle’s head.
Adult turtles vary in colour from olive to green
to brown and have spots, blotches or streaks of brown or black.
The pigmentation of female turtles is usually more rich than the
male turtles. Hatchlings are a dark blue-black colour.
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns
The Green Turtle is confined to the tropical waters
of both hemispheres, adults inhabiting the vicinity of marine
algal growth (their main food). In Pakistan they are found on
the Karachi coast of Sindh and the Makran coast of Balochistan.
They are the only herbivorous species of the marine
turtles as they feed solely on algae and different varieties of
sea grass (depending on where they are). It has been estimated
that the average adult Green turtle requires about 4.5kg of plant
material a day.
Breeding and Other Patterns/Habits
The green turtle prefers to lay its eggs well above
the high water mark on beaches with light sands. Nesting females
are wary of both human and other interference and will therefore
nest during the hours of darkness. Their movement on land resembles
that of the breaststroke of swimmers.
The turtle begins digging her nest when she feels
the change of texture of sand underneath her. Initially she digs
a body pit with her front flippers, so that she is below the beach
level. The nest is dug using her hind flippers alternately to
scoop out the sand. The digging will continue until she can scoop
out no more sand, even while tilting her shell backwards. The
nest itself is oval in shape and is approximately 50cm below the
beach surface.
A clutch contains around 100 eggs, having an average
diameter of 40mm, and is laid in around 15 minutes. After this
is done, she will cover up the hole and compact it in a way that
it is completely disguised.
The inner temperature of the nest remains constant
and will rise to around 35 degrees centigrade near hatching time
due to the heat generated by the developing eggs. The young emerge
45 days after laying during the warmer months. The hatchlings
will hatch simultaneously and work their way up to the surface
in a group and erupt out at night. Sand temperatures of over 28
degrees inhibits their emergence, this acts as a built-in protection
against daytime exposure to predators. Once on the surface the
babies hasten towards the sea, guided by its lighter skyline.
The loss through land and sea predatory factors, at this stage,
is the greatest.
The Green Turtles nest throughout the year but it
is believed that there are seasonal peaks, especially between
May and September. Marked females have been observed nesting six
or seven times at intervals of ten days, the maximum number of
successful nests by one female has been 11. Turtles have a fairly
stereotypical method of returning to the same breeding beach every
three years. Though little is known about the species, sexual
maturity is believed to be reached at the age of about 5 years.
2000 Red List Status:
Endangered
SCIENTIFIC NAME: LEPIDOCHELYS
OLIVACEA
COMMON NAME: PACIFIC OR OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLE
ORDER: TESTUDINES
SUB-ORDER: CRYPTODIRA
FAMILY: CHELONIIDAE
GENUS: LEPIDOCHELYS
Physical Description
Its shell is about a meter in length, making it
slightly smaller than the Green Turtle. It is distinguished by
the presence of five or more central shell shields and from 25
to 27 peripheral (marginal) shields. The young turtles of this
species have three distinct keels on their shells as well.
During adulthood they are an olive brown colour
on the top of their shells and are a yellowish colour below. The
average nesting female weighs around 77lb.
Habitat, Distribution and Feeding Patterns
Like all other marine turtles, the Olive Ridley
Turtle is widely distributed throughout the waters of the tropics,
especially around those in the Indo-Pacific and the East Atlantic
regions. It is the most common turtle on the Indian coasts.
They are still considered widespread although their
nesting sites are being depleted by the increase in human development
on coastal properties.
They are an omnivorous species. In captivity, they
have been known to feed on dead fish, crabs and other crustaceans
as well as the softer parts of molluscs. They also feed on certain
species of jellyfish.
Breeding and Other Patterns/Habits
The turtle’s most common nesting sites are found
on Indian shores. One of the largest mass nesting sites of turtles
occurs in Orissa, India where up to 200,000 Olive Ridleys nest
on 5km of beach over a period of one or two days.
Mating takes place off the shores of the nesting
beaches and occurs throughout the year, though there may be peak
periods that are related to varying climatic conditions. The nesting
behaviour of the Olive Ridley differs from that of the Green Turtle
as there is no body pit dug, and after filling the nest hole the
female will smooth the sand out by turning onto it. She will also
cover the nest site with a common creeper that is found on sandy
beaches.
A clutch may contain between 40 and 125 eggs, though
the normal number of eggs is 105 to 115. The eggs weigh about
35g and have an average diameter of about 38mm. The young hatch
54 to 56 days after the laying of eggs and take 4 to 6 days more
to emerge from their nests.
Status
The main factors that threaten these turtles are
the commercial harvest of adults, incidental capture in shrimp
trawls and the harvesting of their eggs. Also because they feed
on jellyfish they are subject to suffocation by swallowing plastic
bags, that they frequently mistake for these creatures.
2000 Red List Status:
Endangered |
